Friday, December 27, 2019

Comparing Chinese Culture in Amy Tans The Joy Luck Club...

Chinese Culture Exposed in Joy Luck Club and Kitchen Gods Wife Traditional Chinese customs are described in great detail in Amy Tans books. This rich culture adds interesting and mesmerizing detail to the intricate stories of both The Joy Luck Club and The Kitchen Gods Wife. Traditions are apparent throughout all of the stories in The Joy Luck Club. One of the first instances is in the story from Ying-Ying St. Clair entitled The Moon Lady. Ying-Ying is describing the Festival of the Moon Lady, a festival dedicated to the lady who lives on the moon and once a year comes down to earth to grant your secret wish--something you want but cannot ask. This excerpt describes proper traditional dress (ornate clothing†¦show more content†¦Tyan-yu would be the leftover of his fathers spirit. But his father lived and his grandmother became scared that the ghosts would turn their attention to this baby boy and take him instead. So they watched him carefully, made all his decisions, and he became very spoiled (44). This passage shows that Tyan-yu is a spoiled baby who is selfish. It also shows that an unhappy marriage is in the cards for Lindo. Later, as she approaches the age of twelve, she is sent to live with Huang Taitai and Tyan-yu to become accustomed to their lifestyle and learn to be a good wife. She lives like this, unhappy, for four years until she turns sixteen. When she reaches the proper age, the wedding is planned. Lindo says Huang Taitai made elaborate plans, but our wedding was very small. She had asked the entire village and friends and family from other cities as well. In those days, you didnt do RSVP. It was not polite not to come...The cook and her helpers prepared hundreds of dishes. My familys old furniture had been shined up into an impressive dowry and placed in the front parlor...Huang Taitai had even commissioned someone to write felicitous messages on red banners...And she had arranged to rent a red palaquin to carry me from her neighbors house to the ceremony (52). The last tradition that is described in great detail in this story is that of the red candle. This was a traditional wedding custom. The candle had two ends

Thursday, December 19, 2019

Intellectual Passing An Exploration of the Identity of...

Within a community, there are differences among the individuals, both subtle and obvious. Emphasizing the differences in intellectual ability, the definition of the genius is a person of great individual talent and ability that far exceeds that of their peers. In that context, the genius comes from all walks of life, yet, inevitably, becomes conflicted with issue of identification. The genius is simply unlike his or her peers, yet desires to identify with their community. In this, the puzzle and conundrum that is the genius is revealed. Focusing on the lower class, a person of great and immense intellect is born into a community where their peers cannot fathom the depths of the individual’s genius. Because the community cannot offer†¦show more content†¦Intellectual passing concerns the issue of intellectual gifting in an individual that exceeds that of their peers, yet they choose to ignore or neglect their gift in order to blend in with the community. Intellectual p assing is unique, because it argues that the gifted individual does not simply pass in a singular direction. Passing and identity are heavily intertwined, so as passing â€Å"encompasses multiple coordinates†, â€Å"identity is multifaceted† (Moriel 174, 172). Intellectual passing is not restricted to the traditional linear pass, but rather, intellectual passing concerns a dual passing that encompasses the original and assumed identity. The genius passes as a working class member, because they do not identify with their community, yet they are a part of the community. On the other hand, the genius also passes as a member of the upper class, because they are capable of achieving financial and material success, which oftentimes leads to social success, yet they are working class members. Intellectual passing consists of the struggle between the genius’ desire to belong and desire to succeed. The figure of the genius can be exemplified in the character, Will Hunting (Matt Damon), from the movie, Good Will Hunting (Van Sant, 1997). Will is a member of the working class of South Boston, a community of low socioeconomic standing in the shadow of Harvard. Despite his upbringing, he stands out from his peersShow MoreRelatedVictorian Novel9605 Words   |  39 PagesNOVEL 2 II KEY AUTHORS 3 III KEY TEXTS 3 IV TOPICS 3 INTRODUCTION Many associate the word â€Å"Victorian† with images of over-dressed ladies and snooty gentlemen gathered in reading rooms. The idea of â€Å"manners† does sum up the social climate of middle-class England in the nineteenth century. However, if there is one transcending aspect to Victorian England life and society, that aspect is change. Nearly every institution of society was affected by rapid and unforeseeable changes.  As some writers greetedRead MoreRastafarian79520 Words   |  319 Pages Rastafari This page intentionally left blank Rastafari From Outcasts to Culture Bearers Ennis Barrington Edmonds 2003 198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford It furthers the Universitys objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Bangkok Buenos Aires Cape Town Chennai Dar es Salaam Delhi Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi Kolkata KualaRead MoreThe Speech Community.Pdf11808 Words   |  48 Pagesspeakers is not trivial. In studying language change and variation (geographical or social) it is inescapable, yet there is remarkably little agreement or theoretical discussion of the concept in sociolinguistics, though it is much defined. Some examples from research reports suggest the degree of its (over-)extension (Williams 1992, p.71). The term ‘SpCom’ has been used for geographically bounded urban communities large (Philadelphia; Labov 1989) and small (Anniston, Alabama; Feagin 1996); for urban neighborhoodsRead MoreOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 Pageslittle significance. But there is little agreement over when the twentieth century c.e. arrived, and there were several points both before the year 2000 (the collapse of the Soviet Union, the reunification of Germany, the surge of globalization from the mid-1990s) and afterward (9/11, or the global recession of 2008) when one could quite plausibly argue that a new era had begun. A compelling case can be made for viewing the decades of the global scramble for colonies after 1870 as a predictableRead MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesGraphics Cover Art: honey comb and a bee working / Shutterstock / LilKar Sr. Media Project Manager, Editorial: Denise Vaughn Media Project Manager, Production: Lisa Rinaldi Full-Service Project Management: Christian Holdener, S4Carlisle Publishing Services Composition: S4Carlisle Publishing Services Printer/Binder: Courier/Kendallville Cover Printer: Courier/Kendalville Text Font: 10.5/12 ITC New Baskerville Std Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permissionRead MoreDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 Pages mymanagementlab is an online assessment and preparation solution for courses in Principles of Management, Human Resources, Strategy, and Organizational Behavior that helps you actively study and prepare material for class. Chapter-by-chapter activities, including built-in pretests and posttests, focus on what you need to learn and to review in order to succeed. Visit www.mymanagementlab.com to learn more. DEVELOPING MANAGEMENT SKILLS EIGHTH EDITION David A. Whetten BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY Read MoreMetz Film Language a Semiotics of the Cinema PDF100902 Words   |  316 PagesNOTE ON THE TRANSLATION larly dolly in and dolly out are used rather than forward and rear. Mise en scà ¨ne is also retained in its filmic use, while staging is used to describe a stage production. The term constantif, which Metz borrowed from Austin, should be rendered by constantive and not by ascertaining (p. 25). Finally, actor to translate Greimas s concept of actant is misleading and actant is usually kept (see Ducrà ´t and Todorov, Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Sciences of LanguageRead MoreCrossing the Chasm76808 Words   |  308 Pageson distribution, I have done my best to incorporate the emerging influence of the Internet. But the overwhelming bulk of the changes in this new edition—representing about a third of total text—simply swap out the original examples from the 1980s with new ones from the 1990s. Surprisingly, in the majority of cases this swap works very well. But in other cases, there’s been a little forcefitting, and I want to beg your indulgence up front. The world has changed. The high-tech community is now crossingRead MoreGame Theory and Economic Analyst83847 Words   |  336 Pagesdecision in gametheoretic modeling team games and the implications for ï ¬ rms’ management. The nature of the subject and the angle from which it is examined will ensure that Game Theory and Economic Analysis reaches a wide readership. As an established scholar in the area of game theory, Christian Schmidt has produced an authoritative book with contributions from economists of the very highest rank and proï ¬ le, some of them well known beyond the boundaries of the game-theoretic community. ChristianRead MoreStrategic Marketing Management337596 Words   |  1351 Pagesthe publisher Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone: ( 44) 1865 843830, fax: ( 44) 1865 853333, e-mail: permissions@elsevier.co.uk. You may also complete your request on-line via the Elsevier homepage (www.elsevier.com), by selecting ‘Customer Support’ and then ‘Obtaining Permissions’ British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing

Wednesday, December 11, 2019

Literary and Psychological Representations

Question: Discuss about the Literary and Psychological Representations. Answer: Introduction: The famous theoretical physicist, Albert Einstein was born on 14th March, 1879 in Wurttemberg, Germany. In 1880, his family moved to Munich where he started his schooling procedure at Luitpold Gymnasium. Here he supposed to get the best primary and secondary education which helped to develop his educational base. Despite of studying electrical engineering, Einstein chose the teaching profession (Crossland, 2013). In 1896, he decided to pursue training for being a Physics and Mathematics teacher from the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School. After being unable to find suitable post for his diploma degree, in 1901, Albert started working in the Swiss Patent Office as a technical assistant. During the huge leisure period at the Swiss Patent Office, he indulges in further study. In 1905, he became doctorate in physics, particularly in Molecular Dimension from the University of Zurich. Albert joined the post of lecturer at University off Bern in 1908 when he was identified as one of the leading scientists of the country. In 1909, Einstein joined the University of Zurich as the professor extraordinary. He became professor of Theoretical Physics at Prague in 1911. Then he returned to Zurich again in order to join to a similar type of post (Elbaz, 2014). He was elated as the professor in the University of Berlin along with the Director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Physical Institute in 1914. In 1933, he decided to be immigrated to America where he was appointed as the professor of Theoretical Physics at Princeton University. Scientific career During his working period of 1902 to 1909 at the University of Bern, Albert indulged in detailed scientific research and had completed a number of thesis papers on theoretical physics which were also published. In his three initial research papers, Einstein elaborately explained the emission procedure of the electromagnetic energy in discrete quantities from radiating objects. With the help of Planks theory of quantum hypothesis, Einstein vividly describe the electromagnetic radiation of light (Falk, 2016). In 1905, Einstein presented his second research paper on the relativity theory. This theory mainly focuses upon the fact that the speed of light is constant regardless to its medium. Likewise, the law of physics also remains the same in every medium. In 1905, Einstein also put the focus upon the fact that energy and mass are equivalent. His published thesis papers mainly stress importance upon the unification of electrodynamics and mechanics. The third published paper dealt with s tatistical mechanics. Einstein realized the inadequacy of the laws of Newton and tries expressing a different view about the Relativity theory. He seemed to explain Brownian movement of molecules by dealing with statistical mechanics along with quantum theory. Albert aimed to construct unified field theories along with working upon probabilistic interpretation of quantum (van Weeren, 2013). He contributed his valuable work related to atomic transition probabilities and relativistic cosmology. He also creates the foundation of photon theory of light after investigating low radiation density of light with thermal properties. His contribution to the statistical mechanism includes the development of the quantum theory of monatomic gas. Some of the major scientific works of Einstein include several theories namely General theory of Relativity (1916), Special theory of Relativity (1905), Investigations on Theory of Brownian Movement (1926), Relativity (1950), and the Evolution of Physics (1938). His theory of Special Relativity has direct influence upon the energy of an atom bomb (Treschman, 2015). His famous equation of E=mc2 clearly indicates to the stored energy within an atom bomb. He also contributed to Manhattan Project of US government by writing a letter to the president regarding Germanys intention to develop atomic strength against US. Major contribution in Astronomy In 1911, Einstein became able to determine primary predictions on the bending tendency of the ray of a distant star towards the Sun at the time of passing near it. He started gravitational research in 1912 along with Marcel Grossman. In 1915, this theory which is known as general relativity theory had its proper start. Later it was proved that this theory serves the purpose of prediction of the bending of the ray coming from the distant stars better than the laws of Newton. Einstein also reflected valid observation on the gravitational waves. As per his viewpoint, any accelerated object is supposed to emit gravitational waves. However, such waves are not visible. As per Einsteins General Relativity, if two stars remain in the same orbit, both of them seem to release gravitational waves. It is said that a star is supposed to lose mass along with energy as soon as it emits gravitational waves (ORaifeartaigh McCann, 2014). As per Keplers law, the stars move to each other and increases velocity when they lose gravitational waves. Later, after thirty years monitoring of a binary pulsar, the astronomers confirms the fact that the regarded orbit got smaller and the velocity also increased by accurately following the General Relativity theory. As per this theory, gravity seems to be created by the time and bending space which are linked as space time. The influence of Einsteins Relativity theory seems to be very prominent. The synchronizing system of the global positioning system (GPS) satellites near earth along with the application of the production of nuclear energy seems to be the major examples of Einsteins Relativity theory. It is the General Relativity theory of Einstein which proves the existence of black holes about which he was quite skeptical (Gangui Ortiz, 2016). However, astronauts in later period, observe the evidence of black holes in the surrounded universe. Einsteins theory also supports the Big Bang theory, referring that the universe seems to expand since the time of its creation. With the help of this theory, the recent space stations become able to monitor the space GPS system with which the positioning of the satellites around Earth can be understood (Lin-Siegler et al., 2016). Due to the contribution of his famous theory about the wrapping of time and space, Star Treks USS Enterprise became able to overcome a huge distance with the help of this Wrap Speed technique. Reference list Crossland, R. (2013). [M] ultitudinous and Minute: Early Twentieth-Century Scientific, Literary and Psychological Representations of the Mass.Journal of Literature and Science,6(2) Elbaz, C. (2014). Wave-particle duality in Einstein-de Broglie programs.Journal of Modern Physics,5(18), 2192 Falk, D. (2016). Evolution of Brain and Culture.Journal of Anthropological Sciences,94, 1 Gangui, A., Ortiz, E. L. (2016). The scientific impact of Einstein's visit to Argentina, in 1925 Lin-Siegler, X., Ahn, J. N., Chen, J., Fang, F. F. A., Luna-Lucero, M. (2016). Even Einstein struggled: Effects of learning about great scientists struggles on high school students motivation to learn science ORaifeartaigh, C., McCann, B. (2014). Einsteins cosmic model of 1931 revisited: an analysis and translation of a forgotten model of the universe.The European Physical Journal H,39(1), 63-85 Treschman, K. J. (2015). Recent astronomical tests of general relativity.International Journal of Physical Sciences,10(2), 90-105 van Weeren, P. R. (2013). About Rollkur, or low, deep and round: Why Winston Churchill and Albert Einstein were right.The Veterinary Journal,196(3), 290-293

Tuesday, December 3, 2019

Wilder Works And Time Theme Essays - Antrobus, The Skin Of Our Teeth

Wilder Works And Time Theme According to Hall the experience of time "varies in detail from class to class, by occupation, and sex and age within our own culture". (Hall, 1984: 133) Thus its perception is highly subjective. While some people may experience time as running very fast at the same time others can feel it drag. Time escapes definitions though the passage of time can be felt in human personal experience and observed in the environment. Strange as it as, people are aware of time at the same time not being able to say what it really is. St. Augustine is no exception when he once said: "What then, is time? If no one asks me, I know what it is. If I wish to explain it to him who asks me, I do not know." Time is of philosophical interest and is also the subject of mathematical and scientific investigation. Each group sees time different; that is why it cannot be given any simple and illuminating definition. Edward T. Hall in his The Dance of Life took a cultural approach. For Hall: "Time is treated as a language, as a primary organizer for all activities, a synthesizer and integrator, a way of handling priorities and categorizing experience, (...) and a special message system revealing how people really feel about each other and whether or not they can get along." (Hall, 1984, 3) In fact nothing occurs except in some kind of frame time as people feel, think, and act in the time flow. Wilder is most famous for his experiments with time. In most of his plays time is not presented linearly. It can have a spiral structure with many 'loops'; it can, as well, take many different dimensions at the same moment. Composing plays with universal dimension, Wilder does not use object but he asks the spectators to imagine things. He, also, resigns from decorations in favor of bare stage or does not give his actors real props. This all aims at gaining the universal dimension of the play, as objects are material and closed for broader meaning. To have a cosmological dimension, he uses imaginary as the most universal and atemporal 'tool' to create required illusion. Thus, in the plays, everything is highly symbolic and underwritten with the rule: "All, Everywhere, Always". Stage as a symbol of life and characters as representatives of humanity cannot have real objects. In this work, it proved impossible to concentrate only on two characters as it do not reveal all the mechanisms of perceiving time in the presented plays. To have the full image of the problem, it was essential to have at least a pair of each. These are: Emily Webb and George Gibbs (Our Town) and the Antrobus family (The Skin of Our Teeth). They are distinctive enough to prove a good example of multi-dimensional experience of time and all mechanisms that are working in it. The Skin of Our Teeth has a complex structure that is difficult to describe in a conventional way. That is why it will be summarized as it appears in the text and all necessary explanations will be provided throughout the work. The family consists of four members: Mr. & Mrs. Antrobus, two children, Gladys and Henry and Sabina - a maid. The first act opens with the Antrobus family's daily duties. These are just prosaic and trivial things. They have a meal together (with a dinosaur on their lawn); they meet a group of guests (for example: Homer, Moses and Muses) and they drink coffee (afraid of the incoming glacier). The next act takes place in Atlantic City where the family celebrates their 5th wedding anniversary. Sabina wants to seduce Mr. Antrobus and is stopped by the cataclysm - great flood. The last act is set after a global war. The family is restored again apart from Henry who proves to undergo a great negative change. Our Town is structurally less complicated. The story describes lives of two resembling each other families - the Gibbs and the Webbs. They are common people who are, also, preoccupied with such prosaic daily duties like bringing-up children, cooking three meals a day, doing homework, singing in church-choir or gossiping. The play is divided into three acts, too. The first act deals with childhood and adolescence of the two families' children. Act two presents wedding between George Gibbs and Emily Webb and the moment of their falling in love. The last one describes the funeral of Emily who died during her second childbirth

Wednesday, November 27, 2019

University of Connecticut University Scholar Program

Thinking about applying to or attending the University of Connecticut? Maybe learning more about their University Scholar Program might help you make your decision. The Award The University of Connecticut’s University Scholar Program is one of the most prestigious undergraduate programs at UConn. The Program is available to all undergraduates in the University’s schools and colleges. It is designed to give students the opportunity to design and pursue a project or research they are interested in, and to tailor an individualized curriculum for their final three semesters at UConn. University Scholars are awarded the General University Fee for the duration of the program (3 semesters) and are also able to take advantage of additional university benefits. See the full list here. Application Process The University Scholar Program is a 3-semester program, and it is typically done during the last 3 semesters at UConn. Thus, students typically apply the fall of their junior year. Students who are interested in applying should brainstorm the general area of study they wish to pursue during the course of the program, and speak with faculty members to help plan their proposal and for advice. Students are highly recommended to read past successful proposals before putting together their own. The application requires a letter of intent, project proposal and a plan of study. Deadlines September 11, 2017: Letter of Intent Due November 6, 2017: Application Due (Project Proposal and Plan of Study) December 22, 2017: Applicants will be notified of Selection Committee’s Decision There will be information sessions during the spring for sophomores who are interested in applying the next fall. Campus Culture The UConn University Scholar Program is certainly appealing, but it is one of the many programs that UConn offers. If you’re still not sure if UConn is the school for you, here are some recommendations and suggestions from current UConn students: AALBIRUNI University of Connecticut ‘19 My school is located in the middle of nowhere, lingering on the border of Massachusetts and Connecticut. Despite its isolation, the community of the University of Connecticut is closer to home than many think, because there is a diversity of individuals, many whom I know from the same region. Every person in Connecticut can name at least two other people who went to the UConn. UConn hosts a dynamic community where everyone knows each other. Unlock his full UConn application file!Bc5123 University of Connecticut ‘19 I applied at the last possible second because my college essay sill needed some work. My advice is to apply early. If you know that you want to go to UConn apply for early action or early decision. These students are the ones that get considered for the honors program first (and if youre in the honors program you get half tuition). The earlier you apply, the better chance you have of getting in and getting a nice scholarship, so dont waste time! Unlock her full successful UConn application file! Want to learn more about UConn and how to get in? Ourpremium plansoffer different level of profile access and data insights that can help you get into your dream school. Unlock any of ourpackagesor search ourundergraduate profile databaseto find specific profiles that can help you make an informed choice about where to apply!

Sunday, November 24, 2019

Blakes The Tyger Essay Example

Blakes The Tyger Essay Example Blakes The Tyger Essay Blakes The Tyger Essay Essay Topic: Prometheus Tyger by William Blake is a beautifully written poem that brings forth many philosophical questions about the origin of the animal known as a tiger. It was published as part of his collection Songs of Experience and through close reading of the poem, deeper meaning is uncovered behind the literary piece. The poem consists of six quatrains or what is known as four-line stanzas and contains along with that, two couplets or rhyming lines. Throughout the reading of the poem, the poem has dual layers of meaning behind its initial denotation of the origin of a tiger and more towards the origin of Satan. The questions to whom created it, where he did it, how he did it, and how the creator felt, illustrates the stream of conscious questioning behind the origin of the devil. Tyger! Tyger! burning bright In the forests of the night, What immortal hand or eye Could frame thy fearful symmetry? The poem goes through a basic order of questioning with the core question of hat immortal hand or eye Could frame thy fearful symmetry? This who question seems connotative of the idea of God as the immortal being and Creator of all things. As a tiger is a nocturnal predator of the night, *urning brightalso also brings forth he imagery of fire and contains consonance. Tigers bring forth imagery of brilliantly orange colored fur and black stripes merged together. This also is a colored illustrations of biblical descriptions of Hell itself. fin the forests of the nightdemonstrate operation in the darkness, something Satan does as well. The duality of meaning in the tigers image and biblical allusion to Satan as the central character of the poem start the stream of rhetorical questioning the author has. In what distant deeps or skies Burnt the fire of thine eyes? On what wings dare he aspire? What the hand dare sieze the fire? The second stanza it asks the question of where fin what distant deeps or skies Burnt the fire of thine eyes? The location of where Satan was formed is presented when bringing forth the location *istant deeps or skies,and the line also presents alliteration as well. The idea of did Satan come from the depths of hell, or was he formed above where God is located in heaven is presented within these lines. The last two lines of the quatrain once again acts as allusions to both a biblical and mythological origin. inn what wings dare he aspire? What the hand dare sieze the fire? oint to Prometheus, a Greek mythological being who stole fire from the gods and gave it to humans in order to progress life. Ultimately he faced severe punishment for his actions. Satan himself can be seen as a Prometheus type character as well. He convinced Adam and Eve to eat of the fruit and was punished for his actions as well. Though he did not seize the fire per say, he did push the first banished for having the pride and avarice to overthrow God. Blake shows such brilliance in the fact that the poem can still be taken on a literal meaning, and as a connotative meaning of biblical origin. And what shoulder, what art Could twist the sinews of thy heart? And when thy heart began to beat, What dread hand? what dread feet The third stanza speaks to the power of the Creator who we recognize as God who must be strong to form such a powerful creature as the essential in the construction of things and the beauty of the tiger mandates and artistic mind. ould twist the sinews of thy heartis a very profound line. Dual meaning can be taken within this line as the heart from the spiritual perspective dictates decision making. If God created Satan, did he create the evil within Satans heart and his actions if God as control over all things and Satan is the origin of evil? The second part of the stanza illustrates the power of Satan as the tiger is a powerful creature of dread and strength, so is Satan. As the hand is capable of destroying and creating and feet dictate presence everywhere. This is especially important in the dual meaning, as the tiger itself does not have hands or feet but rather paws. Thus these two lines once again show that Blake is pointing towards a deeper meaning. What the hammer? what the chain? In what furnace was thy brain? What the anvil? what dread grasp Dare its deadly terrors clasp? The fourth stanza illustrates the metaphor of a blacksmith that God is, ammersand ? ±hainsoften being the tool and object blacksmiths create. These questions seem to ask where and how exactly did you create a being like Satan and what were the restraints and form of Satan. Once again repetition of imagery with fire is displayed here as well. Ehat was furnace was thy brainpoint towards the imagery of hell once again but point towards the mind of Satan as well as how did he develop the idea of pride to think he could overthrow God. When the stars threw down their spears, And watered heaven with their tears, Did he smile his work to see? Did he who made the Lamb make thee? This fifth stanza highlights the downfall of Satan and the other angels that plotted to overtake God. This is seen with the first two lines that talk throwing down spearsand %atered heaven with their tears. As Satan was cast out of Gods presence and the realm of heaven with the other angels were saddened. The second two lines question Gods intent of pleasure or emotion in that His creation deviated so far from Jesus, did he create Satan as well. This stanza sticks out because this deviates much rom the dual meaning of the tiger, but highlights once again the connotative direction of Satans creation. Dare frame thy fearful symmetry? The last stanza remains the same, but the last two lines slightly change in that ares now the last lines first word. The qualities of the Oger that presents a duality between beauty, ferocity, and strength of the beast and Satan, The speaker wonders whether why the hand that created Satan created him. A being of evil and power that shines brightly influencing others negatively. Blake does a brilliant Job of showing two meanings behind his poem.

Thursday, November 21, 2019

Description of the Technical Evolution and Trends in the Future for Essay

Description of the Technical Evolution and Trends in the Future for Petrol and Diesel Fuel Injections Systems - Essay Example The paper also discusses the various mechanisms that result in low or high cylinder pressure, provides a brief on the global warming phenomena as the increased use of automotives contributes to the green house gas emissions and finally a note on the issues related to automotive fuel systems. Introduction Fuel injection system, which has become a major form of fuel delivery used in automotive petrol engines, involves injection of fuel into an internal combustion engine. From the late 1980s this fuel injection system has replaced the carburetors, which was till then the most widely used in engines. Most of the fuel injection systems are designed and calibrated to handle gasoline or diesel applications specifically. The advent of the electronic fuel injection (EFI) systems has enabled the use of similar hardware for both diesel and gasoline ("Fuel injection", 2010). The EFI system uses a solenoid-operated injector to spray the atomized fuel into a 3-inch manifold near the intake valve. This technique is not being commonly employed in several vehicles or in some cases the air and fuel is directly injected. This system mainly depends on the injectors which come in various designs, cylinder pressure, fuel line pressure and other similar factors. ... \\ Carburetors A basic model carburetor consists of the following components: Fuel tank that stores the fuel fuel lines or pipes that carry the fuel within the system a pump which passes the fuel from the tank to the engine fuel cleaning filter system that supplies clean air a  carburetor  that mixes the incoming fuel and the air and it also control the amount of mixture entering into the engine the intake-manifold to supply the mixture to the engine. Inside the carburetor the liquid fuel is converted into a fine spray which mixes with the air. A correct amount of this mixture is supplied to the engine via a throttle valve connected to the accelerator or gas pedal. Of the various models, the down-draft carburetor is very common while the side-draft model is not widely used nowadays. In the down-draft model the carburetor is placed on top of the intake manifold and it consists of a floating bowl for the fuel. A tube immersed into the fuel passes the fuel into the discharge nozzle placed at the other end in the venturi. The venturi is narrow and is shaped in a way that will enable the air to pass at a fast speed. This set up can be compared to the wings of an aircraft the shape of which causes the air to flow at a higher speed that creates an area of low-pressure than the atmospheric pressure. This difference in pressure provides an upward trust that lifts the aircraft. This phenomena is referred to as the 'Bernoulli effect' and in the case of the venturi the end of the nozzle protruding into the airflow is an area of low-pressure compared to the fuel injected into the float bowl. This pressure difference causes the fuel to flow from the nozzle which atomizes as it mixes with air. The air-fuel ratio required by a light vehicle is about 15:1 which is terms of weight is

Wednesday, November 20, 2019

A Criminological Analysis Of Domestic Violence Essay

A Criminological Analysis Of Domestic Violence - Essay Example Child abuse and domestic violence often occur in the same family and are linked in a number of important ways that have serious consequences for the safety of all family members as well as for members of the larger community. First, where one form of family violence exists, there is a strong likelihood that the other one does too. Second, research shows that the impact on children of witnessing parental domestic violence is strikingly similar to the consequences of being directly abused by a parent, and both experiences are significant contributors to youth violence. Third, many of the factors highly associated with the occurrence of child abuse are also associated with domestic violence, and many of these are the same factors that put children at risk for youth violence and adult violent crime. Overlapping all these problems is substance abuse, which is associated with each form of violence as a co-factor. These linkages have important implications for intervention and prevention efforts. Researchers have also found that men who as children witnessed their parents' domestic violence were twice as likely to abuse their own wives than sons of nonviolent parents.(Straus, Gelles and Smith 72) A significant proportion of abusive husbands grew up in families where they witnessed their mothers being beaten. Clearly, domestic violence and child abuse are spawning grounds for the next generation of abusers, as well as for violent juveniles. In 1994 there were an estimated 2.9 million reports of suspected child abuse and neglect.(McCurdy and Daro 81) Data from a 1995 Gallup Poll of family violence suggest that from 1.5 million to 3.3 million children witness parental domestic violence each year. These are sobering statistics in light of the known impact of child abuse and witnessing domestic violence on each child, the social costs associated with it.(Gallup, Moor, Schussel 19) Social isolation characterizes many families in which either domestic violence or child abuse is present, although it is not always clear whether the isolation causes the abuse or whether the abuse causes the isolation. A study of the social support and social network relationships of neglecting and non-neglecting, low-income, single, mothers found key differences in the mothers' perceptions of their relationships and interactions. The study found that negative relationships were an important differentiating factor between neglecting and non-neglecting mothers. The relationships of neglecting mothers were characterized by conflict, distrust, and lack of mutua lity, while non-neglecting mothers experienced satisfying supportive relationships which emphasized a sense of mutuality and fairness.(Beeman 431) The separate institutional and grassroots responses to child abuse and domestic violence which have taken place over the last two decades in the form of intensive services for battered women and abused children, while critical, have proved woefully inadequate. In fact, both of these problems continue unabated. However, despite more than 1800 domestic violence programs across the country, the media reports almost daily grisly stories of battered women doing all the right things: calling the police, obtaining restraining orders, getting divorced, moving away - only to be murdered (often along with their

Sunday, November 17, 2019

Managing for Results Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Managing for Results - Essay Example The officer in command was Captain William Bligh and Fletcher Christian was second in command. Some countrymen are pressed into serving the English navy for this voyage of about 2 years. After having faced various hardships put forth by the sea and the Captain in command, alike, they reached Tahiti and obtained the breadfruit plants during their six month stay on the island. However, shortly after leaving Tahiti, Christian leads a mutiny against Captain Bligh in revolt of his atrocities on the seamen. They manage to capture and cast Bligh and his loyalists in a life boat with some supplies while Christian and his loyalists return to Tahiti in the HMS Bounty. Bligh and his people make the most remarkable conduct of navigation in the history of the sea - a 3500 mile open sea voyage aboard a life boat. Bligh reaches Timor Island. He returns to Tahiti aboard another ship in search of the mutineers, lead by Fletcher Christian. Christian and a few men escape in the Bounty while several oth ers remain on the island. They are taken to England by Bligh and are tried for mutiny. Most men are executed for their crime except Roger Byam. Christen and his followers reach Pitcairn Island, where they decide to spend the rest of their lives, and burn down the Bounty so as to not be found by English searchers. ‘A story of a man who robbed his seamen, cursed them, flogged them not to punish, but to break their spirit. A story of greed and tyranny.....and of anger against it, of what it cost’ – Roger Byam during the trial (Mutiny on the Bounty, 1935) Captain William Blighs managerial abilities on the Bounty is an excellent example of how one man changed from control leadership to team unity with a change in the situation, over 2 centuries years ago. Bligh tries to enforce harsh ‘discipline’ by various means - flogging a dead seaman for striking his captain, shortening rations as per the Captains prerogative, public chastisement of Christian, Bligh accusing

Friday, November 15, 2019

Languages Essays Italian Economic Miracle

Languages Essays Italian Economic Miracle The Italian Economic Miracle Exposed: The Use of Comic Effects and Irony in Calvinos Marcovaldo. The Economic Miracle that is said to have swept across post-war Italy in the 1950s has been attributed by many scholars to the decision to open up the economy. This, in turn, gave Italy the chance to undergo a growth spurt that would help it keep pace with the rest of the world. According to Foot, the decision, made in the 1950s, to open up the country to trade and to let it integrate into the world market allowed it to catch up rapidly with the leading economies (2001:110). The growth spurt in the economy had wide-reaching effects. It changed the lives of the Italian people, many of whom found themselves transplanted from familiar rural areas to modern urban environments essentially a brand new way of life. As Foot asserts, Italys economic miracle transformed the countrys cultural landscape (2001:19). This is the world that was the setting for Italo Calvinos collection of stories, Marcovaldo, ovvero,Le stagioni in città   (Marcovaldo, or The Seasons in the City). The protagonist of these stories, Marcovaldo, appears to be a good-hearted, hard-working man. He ekes out a living as a day laborer, providing for his wife and children, but it is clearly a marginal existence. The struggle of his daily life is eased by his imagination, which leads him to become entangled in a number of amusing adventures. Marcovaldo has been described by one scholar as a man with the heros nostalgia for nature and open spaces,   whose sensitivity to the changing seasons in a cityscape polluted by all kinds of objects and living things, make sense only within the context of an urban setting (Jeannet 1977:26). These stories, or fables, as they are sometimes called, can be read on a surface level as a delightful collection of misadventures by a well-meaning but misguided individual. However, when considered in the light of this stark urban setting, they stand out as comical and ironic, a vehicle used by Calvino to expose the negative sides of this so-called economic miracle. It has been suggested that alongside the depiction of urban corruption and pollution, Calvino also, through the lovable but haplessly inept protagonist, undermines the Romantic notion of a return to nature' (Gabriele 1994:21–22). Thus, it seems that Calvino has transplanted Marcovaldo this high-spirited, though misguided, representative of rural life into the hostile new terrain of urban life. In so doing, he wrote a book that can be read as a volume of entertaining tales, and at the same time an ironic critique of the results of the economic boom. Calvinos use of comedy and irony is present throughout the book, and starts at the beginning. In the initial story, Calvinos description of Marcovaldo is wry and amusing, and it sets up the contrast between Marcovaldos simplistic nature against the backdrop of the strange new city: Aveva questo Marcovaldo un occhio poco adatto alla vita di città  : cartelli, semafori, vetrine, insegne luminose, manifesti, per studiati che fossero a colpire lattenzione, mai fermavano il suo sguardo che pareva scorrere sulle sabbie del deserto (7). Apparently, Marcovaldo is oblivious to the eye-catching distractions of the modern city; to him, they are non-existent. Instead, he is alert to the signs, however few and however bleak, of the natural world. In fact, he spends his time searching them out. The paucity of these signs does not deter him or detract from his enthusiasm. This suggests that he longs for his former, simpler life, and that he misses the rural background that he knows best. The search for signs of the natural world is rewarded when Marcovaldo discovers, to his delight, the first mushroom: Si chinà ² a legarsi le scarpe e guardà ² meglio: erano funghi, veri funghi, che stavano spuntando proprio nel curoe della città   (7). The discovery of the mushroom fills him with hope. Suddenly the drab grayness of the city melts away, and the drudgery and struggle of his daily life becomes less oppressive: A Marcovaldo parve che il mondo grigio e misero che lo circondava diventasse tutta un tratto generoso di ricchezze nascoste, e che dalla vita ci si potesse ancora aspettare qualcosa, oltre la paga oraria del salario contrattuale, la contingenza, gli assegni familiari e il carpane (7). The exaggerated happiness at the discovery of a mushroom serves to highlight the stark contrast of the urban world with his rustic background. The double reversal that follows the discovery of the mushrooms is another example of the comical irony that Calvino employs to expose the negative aspects of the economic boom. We note that Marcovaldo carefully guards the location of his discovery until Sunday, when, wife and children in tow, he heads for the mushroom site to pick them only to learn that there are bigger, better mushrooms, and that he is not the only one who is gathering them. This is the first disappointment, followed by an evening in the hospital, because it turns out the mushrooms are poisoned! Although Marcovaldo here may simply appear to be a bumbling fool, it seems plausible that Calvino is demonstrating the potential for disaster that is a result of uprooting people from the country and setting them down into a new and unfamiliar environment. Gabriele asserts that Marcovaldo knows nothing about the natural world, as is evidenced by his mishaps with the mushrooms and the pigeons. Marcovaldo has not been transplanted from a rural environment into an urban one; rather, he chases a rather indefinite dream of paradise (Gabriele 1994:21–22). Calvino might also be suggesting here that the time Marcovaldo has lived in an urban environment may have obliterated the common country logic he once had. Alternatively, perhaps this incident is used to demonstrate that Marcovaldo is, after all, a simpleton who simply does not know a good mushroom from a poisonous variety. Another possibility is that Calvino is trying to say that Marcovaldo, now an urban dweller, has taken on the greed associated with the rise of the city, and that this greed overpowers his natural instincts. The move from country to city, then, is portrayed as having deleterious effects on new urban dwellers. As Olken suggests, Calvino implies here that all growing things undergo corruption in the noxious atmosphere of the city (1984:121). Starting with the first story and continuing throughout the book, Marcovaldo embarks on a variety of ill-fated adventures, and each of them ends with a reversals or double reversal. Thus, it appears that Calvino reinforces the message albeit in a comical way that the financial prosperity that has been called the economic miracle is not a miracle for everyone indeed, it has a dark side. The final story has a twist that goes beyond this, suggesting that although Marcovaldos integration into urban life has been less than successful, that the lives of his children show a level of promise. Calvino describes a typical urban Christmas with clear irony: Tutti erano presi dallatmosfera alacre e cordiale che si espandeva per la città   festosa e produttiva; nulla à ¨ pià º bello che sentire scorrere intorno il flusso dei beni materiali e insieme del bene che ognuno vuole agli altri: e questo, questo soprattutto come ci ricorda il suono, firulà ­ firulà ­, delle zampogne, à ¨ cià ² che conta (118). Rampant materialism is juxtaposed with the feeling of good will it supposedly inspires, and the ugliness of the city clearly debases the sentiments of good cheer. In this story, Marcovaldos children must complete a school project that requires them to bring gifts to a poor child When Marcovaldo comes upon them in the midst of their preparations, he asks what they are doing and they respond Dobbiamo cercare un bambino povero e fargli dei regali (119). It occurs to him to remind them that they are poor children themselves, but apparently the spirit of materialism overcomes him and he responds Bambini poveri non ne esistono pià º (119). When the children do eventually find a poor child upon whom to lavish their gifts, it turns out to be none other than the child of   the president of the Union for the Implementation of Christmas Consumption (il presidente dellUnione Incremento Vendite Natalizie). This very spoiled child, dissatisfied with the hundreds of toys he has already amassed, is delighted by the gifts of Marcovaldos children, and he embarks on a wave of destruction that culminates in the burning down of the family home. Calvino turns the horror and humiliation that Marcovaldo feels when he learns of this incident into a clever and telling reversal. When Marcovaldo shows up for work the next day, he is certain there will be repercussions from the exploits of his children. After all, it was their actions that led to the mischief of Gianfranco and the ensuing destruction. In addition, although Marcovaldo is correct in his assumption that there will be fallout to contend with, he is wrong about the nature of that fallout. Therefore, when approached by high company officials the next day, he is not surprised, and girds himself for the worst-case scenario. However, when he arrives, he is told by the officials that there has been a change in the gift-giving program. Apparently, Gianfrancos destructive deeds have been seen in a far different light by his father: in the act of destroying everything in his wake, Gianfranco finally appeared, for once, to be happy. This has inspired the president to change the course of the gift-giving campaign. The officials inform Marcovaldo of this, exhorting him to hurry, because   LUnione Incremento Vendite Natalizie ha lanciato una campagna per il lancio del Regalo Distruttivo (123). Thus the actions of his children, for which he expected a certain and swift punishment, have actually turned around into a new commercial venture based on destruction. Calvinos portrayal of Marcovaldo as a bumbling peasant in the city can be seen as a vehicle through which he presents the negative aspects of the Italian economic miracle. He does this by setting this transplanted character into the foreign and often hostile urban environment. This volume is versatile: the adventures of Marcovaldo can be read as a series of delightful childrens tales or as a treatise exposing the dark side of the miracle. Cannon points out that Calvino had high aspirations for a literature autonomous but not divorced from political concerns (1989:33). The duality of Marcovaldo suggests that was his intention with this book. The image projected b the fiction of Calvino, suggests Cannon, seems to have become that of an increasingly indecipherable world (1989:38). She discusses the crisis of reason that is a recurrent theme in Calvinos fiction (1989:39). Oaken suggests that Marcovaldo represents the modern immigrant who tries desperately to adapt and conform. He will never really succeed, as his children may do; he is too divided between the two worlds, ill-prepared and therefore victimized (Olken 1984:122). The victimization of Marcovaldo, however amusing and ironic, is a tool Calvino uses to bring to light the negative repercussions that the sudden growth of prosperity brought with it. The final chapter does offer a glimmer of hope, in that the adaptability of Marcovaldos children, and of children in general, will better equip them to integrate into the new world. They have already done so, in fact, and with much more facility success, even than their parents. Whether Calvino believes this is positive or negative, he does not indicate here, perhaps because that has become a moot point. Change, for better or for worse, is inevitable. References Bloom, Harold, ed. 2001. Modern Critical Views: Italo Calvino. Broomall, PA: Chelsea   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   House Publishers. Calvino, Italo. 1963. Marcovaldo, ovvero,Le stagioni in città  . Giulio Einaudi editore s.p.a.,    Torino. Cannon, JoAnn. 1989. Postmodern Italian Fiction: The Crisis of Reason in Calvino, Eco,    Sciascia, Malerba. London: Associated University Presses, Inc. Foot, John. 2001. Milan Since the Miracle: City, Culture and Identity. Oxford: Berg. Gabriele, Tommasina. 1994. Italo Calvino: Eros and Language. London: Associated University Presses, Inc. Jeannet, Angela. 1977. Italo Calvinos Invisible City. Pp. 25–36 in Bloom, Harold, ed.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   2001. Modern Critical Views: Italo Calvino. Broomall, PA: Chelsea House   Ã‚   Publishers. Olken, I.T. 1984. With Pleated Eye and Garnet Wing: Symmetries of Italo Calvino. Ann   Ã‚   Arbor, Michigan: Universit of Michigan Press. Signorini, Luigi Federico. 2001. Italys economy: An introduction. Daedalus, Spring. http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3671/is_200104/ai_n8929681

Tuesday, November 12, 2019

Crisis Counseling: an Overview

Psychology in the Schools, Vol. 46(3), 2009 Published online in Wiley InterScience (www. interscience. wiley. com) C 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. DOI: 10. 1002/pits. 20370 CRISIS COUNSELING: AN OVERVIEW JONATHAN SANDOVAL, AMY NICOLE SCOTT, AND IRENE PADILLA University of the Paci? c Psychologists working in schools are often the ? rst contacts for children experiencing a potentially traumatizing event or change in status. This article reviews basic concepts in crisis counseling and describes the components of psychological ? rst aid.This form of counseling must be developmentally and culturally appropriate as well as individualized. Effective intervention can prevent post-traumatic stress syndrome and facilitate normal mourning processes associated with any losses experienced. These prevention activities are also discussed. Some children may need resources beyond those that the school can provide, and appropriate referrals can link children and adults to a variety of treatments such as psychotherapy and medication, also brie? y outlined. C 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.Most children and adults are resilient and have ways of coping with stressful events. In fact, according to the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH; 2001), recovery from crisis exposure is the norm. Children usually need minimal assistance from family members, teachers, clergy, or other caring adults. Others, particularly those with few social supports, enter into a crisis state (Barenbaum, Ruchkin, & Schwab-Stone, 2004; Caffo & Belaise, 2003; Litz, Gray, Bryant, & Adler, 2002; Ozer, Best, Lipsey, & Weiss, 2003). People in crisis are in what Caplan (1964) terms a state of psychological disequilibrium.This disequilibrium occurs when a hazardous event challenges normal psychological adaptation and coping. Individuals often behave irrationally and withdraw from normal social contacts. They cannot be helped using usual counseling or teaching techniques. Nevertheless, children in crisis are usuall y also in school. School psychologists and other guidance personnel must be able to support teachers, parents, and the children themselves during periods of crisis. The primary goal in helping an individual who is undergoing a crisis is to intervene in such a way as to restore the individual to a previous level of functioning.For children, this means returning to the status of learner. Although it may be possible to use the situation to enhance personal growth, the immediate goal is not to reorganize completely the individual’s major dimensions of personality, but to restore the individual to creative problem solving and adaptive coping. Of course, by successfully resolving a crisis an individual will most likely acquire new coping skills that will lead to improved functioning in new situations, but that is only a desired, possible outcome, not the sole objective of the process (Caplan, 1964).Because failure to cope is at the heart of a crisis, the promotion of coping is an o verall objective of crisis intervention. P SYCHOLOGICAL F IRST A ID School psychologists and other mental health personnel working in schools are in a position to offer psychological ? rst aid (Parker, Everly, Barnett, & Links, 2006). Analogous to medical ? rst aid, the idea is to intervene early when a hazardous event occurs for an individual, and offer compassionate support to facilitate adaptive coping. At the same time, the need for further intervention may be assessed and planned.According to The National Child Traumatic Stress Network and National Center for Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) (2006) there are eight core psychological ? rst aid actions. Of course, the exact actions taken need to be tailored to the particular circumstances of crisis victims. Correspondence to: Jonathan Sandoval, Department of Educational and School Psychology, Benerd School of Education, 3601 Paci? c Avenue, Stockton, CA 95211. E-mail: [email  protected]? c. edu 246 Crisis Counseling Overvi ew 247 Making Contact The ? st action is to establish a relationship through verbal and nonverbal means with the child. Generally speaking, the sooner contact is made the better. By simply being physically present with the child and supporting nonverbal behavior alone, anxiety can be lessened. Providing Safety It is important to protect children from further harm by moving them to a secure location and attending to their basic needs for food, drink, sleep, shelter, or freedom from further danger. To relieve tension, it is also helpful to provide a place for play and relaxation.Children need to be protected from the eyes of strangers and the curious, and they need to be spared watching scenes of a traumatic event in the media (Young, Ford, Ruzek, Friedman, & Gusman, 1999). Stabilizing Affect Counselors must demonstrate nonverbally that they are able to be calm and composed. Adults modeling calmness and competence can communicate that problems may be solved and emotions can be control led in time. A counseling relationship will be important to help the child manage fear, anxiety, panic, and grief. Nondirective listening skills are most effective.However, it is also important not to offer unrealistic reassurance or to encourage denial as a defense or coping mechanism (Sandoval, 2002a). Addressing Needs and Concerns Once the crisis worker has been able to formulate an accurate, comprehensive statement about the student’s perception of the situation by identifying all of the sources of concern, it will be possible to begin the process of exploring potential strategies to improve or resolve the emotionally hazardous situation. Jointly, the crisis worker and pupil review the strategies explored and select one for trial. The outcome should be an action plan.This is much like the problem solving that occurs in conventional counseling, but must be preceded by the steps previously mentioned. Moving too quickly to problem solving is a common mistake of novices. Howe ver effective the problem solution is, the very process of turning attention to the future and away from the past is bene? cial in and of itself. Provide Practical Assistance Helpers need to be direct with children and take an active role in managing their environment. Because parents may be disabled by the disaster, it is comforting to see some adult taking control and making decisions.Some solutions may involve actions by others, such as teachers or school administrators. To the extent necessary, the crisis worker may act as an intermediary communicating with authorities on the child’s behalf. When working in schools, a task will be to reunite children with their parents or loved ones. Plans need to be in place to communicate with parents and track children should a disaster occur at a school site (Brock, Sandoval, & Lewis, 2001). Facilitate Connections with Social Supports Finding social supports may be particularly dif? cult during times of crisis.In a disaster, for examp le, whole communities are affected. There is a disruption of both schools and social services. There is often an absence of adults with whom children can process feelings of loss, dread, and vulnerability. Psychology in the Schools DOI: 10. 1002/pits 248 Sandoval, Scott, and Padilla Nevertheless, it is usually possible to ? nd either a group of peers or family members who can provide emotional support and temporary physical assistance during the crisis. In this way the pupil’s energies may be devoted to coping with the crisis.Being with and sharing crisis experiences with positive social support systems facilitates recovery. Conversely, lower levels of social support often predicts traumatic stress reactions (Barenbaum et al. , 2004; Caffo & Belaise, 2003; Litz et al. , 2002; Ozer et al. , 2003). If family is not available, there are often community resources that may substitute and the crisis worker should be knowledgeable about them. Facilitating Coping During the process o f crisis intervention, the student will have temporarily become dependent on the crisis counselor for direct advice, for stimulating action, and for supplying hope.This situation is temporary and before the crisis intervention interviews are over, the crisis counselor must spend some time planning ways to restore the student to selfreliance and self-con? dence. This restoration may be accomplished by consciously moving into a position of equality with the student, sharing the responsibility and authority. Although earlier the crisis counselor may have been very directive, eventually he or she strives to return to a more democratic stance.Techniques such as one-downsmanship [where the counselor acknowledges the pupil’s contribution to problem solving, while minimizing the counselor’s own contribution (Caplan, 1970)] permit the counselee to leave the crisis intervention with a sense of accomplishment. Helping individuals to ? nd alternative rewards and sources of satisfa ction using problemfocused coping (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) is most helpful. Providing anticipatory guidance involves connecting children to knowledge and resources, and involves providing information about stress reactions and future challenges that the client will face.It acts to reduce distress and promote adaptive functioning. Any action strategies must be implemented in the context of what the student thinks is possible to accomplish. Crisis ? rst aid providers can emphasize what positive there is in the situation, even if it seems relatively minor. For example, even the victim of a sexual assault can be congratulated for at least surviving physically. The crisis situation often leads to a diminution in self-esteem and the acceptance of blame for the crisis.With an emphasis on how the child coped well given the situation so far, and how the person has arrived at a strategy for moving forward, there can be a restoration of the damaged view of the self. Drawing from the self-conc ept literature, it may also be important to emphasize positive views of the self in speci? c areas, as self-concept has been theorized to be a hierarchical and multidimensional construct (Marsh & Shavelson, 1985; Shavelson, Hubner, & Stanton, 1976). According to the compensatory model (Marsh, Byrne, & Shavelson, 1988), which holds that selfconcept in different domains may be additive, it may be bene? ial for students to increase their self-concept in one area if it has been diminished in another area as a result of a traumatic event. Helping children recognize competence in other areas besides the ones affected by the trauma will protect feelings of self-worth. This notion of building up other branches of self concept, such as academic self-concept, is also supported by Shavelson’s hierarchical model (Shavelson et al. , 1976). Create Linkages with Needed Collaborative Services Prime candidates for resources in many cultures are clergy, but these resources may also be an in? e ntial neighborhood leader or politician. In non-western (and western) cultures the family is an important system of support during times of crisis. Keep in mind that de? nitions of â€Å"family† do differ considerably. Psychology in the Schools DOI: 10. 1002/pits Crisis Counseling Overview 249 In many non-western cultures when individuals enter a crisis state, they turn to individuals (shaman) who are acknowledged within their communities as possessing special insight and helping skills. Their helping skills often emphasize non-ordinary reality and the psychospiritual realm of personality (Lee and Armstrong, 1995).Referral Although this is not one of the core psychological ? rst aid actions, as the ? rst and perhaps only person on the scene, the school psychologist should be helpful. Attend to physical needs, offer appropriate reassurance and anticipatory guidance, and help those in a crisis state to take positive action to facilitate coping (Sandoval, 2002a). As soon as poss ible, however, facilitate an appropriate referral to a culturally appropriate helper and/or to community-based services, and follow-up to determine that a connection has been made.D EVELOPMENTAL I SSUES I N C RISIS C OUNSELING A child of 5 and an adolescent of 16 have radically different faculties for dealing with information and reacting to events. Differences in cognitive, social, and emotional development mean that they will respond differently to hazards and will need to be counseled differently should they develop a crisis reaction (Marans & Adelman, 1997). The same event (e. g. , the death of a parent) may be a crisis for a preschooler as well as a high-school senior, but each will react and cope with the event differently.Counseling with younger children often involves the use of nonverbal materials, many more directive leads to elicit and re? ect feelings, and a focus on concrete concerns as well as fantasy. The use of drawing, for example, has proved very effective in getti ng children to express what has happened to them (Hansen, 2006; Morgan & White, 2003). In terms of increasing self-concept with children after a crisis, one must consider the dimensionality of self-concept as it relates to cognitive, language, and social factors (Byrne, 1996; Harter, 1999). Self-concept dimensions tend to increase with age.That is, young children are able to make judgments about themselves in terms of concrete and observable behaviors and tend to display all-or-none thinking. Thus, self-concept at this age tends to have few dimensions. Children at this age describe themselves in relation to certain categories, such as â€Å"I am 5† or â€Å"I have blond hair,† and are able to make simple comparisons such as â€Å"I am crying and he is not crying† (Harter, 1999). Although young children tend to have very positive descriptions of the self, negative life experiences, such as a traumatic event, may cause them to view themselves negatively.During mid dle childhood, self-concept dimensionality increases and children are able to make more global statements about their self-concept. However, they will often overestimate their abilities. Their descriptions change from being concrete to traitlike. Children during this stage also begin to use social comparison as they judge themselves and they can make social comparison statements, such as â€Å"I am more shy than most kids† or â€Å"I’m good at (one subject) and not (other subjects). † All-or-none thinking may continue at this stage, which may cause children to view themselves negatively (Harter, 1999).Traditional talk therapies such as nondirective counseling capitalize on a client’s capacity for rational thought and high level of moral development and are more likely to be effective with adolescents. With adolescents, the school psychologist can also acknowledge and use the ageappropriate crisis of establishing an identity. During adolescence, more diffe rentiation of the self occurs and peers may be used for social comparisons. Abstract concepts are used to describe the self, and there is an awareness of â€Å"multiple selves,† where they may behave or act differently in different contexts.Adolescents begin to make statements with interpersonal implications, such as, Psychology in the Schools DOI: 10. 1002/pits 250 Sandoval, Scott, and Padilla â€Å"Because I am shy I do not have many friends† or â€Å"People trust me because I am an honest person† (Harter, 1999). In reviewing the crisis intervention principles and procedures just outlined, it seems reasonable to expect that younger children would have a greater dif? culty acknowledging a crisis, and would be more prone to use immature defenses such as denial and projection to avoid coping with a crisis (Allen, Dlugokinski, Cohen, & Walker, 1999).In contrast, an adolescent might use more advanced defenses such as rationalization and intellectualization. In coun seling children, more time might be spent on exploring reactions and feelings to the crisis situation and establishing support systems that engage in lengthy problem solving. With older adolescents, then, it may be possible to focus much more on establishing reasonable expectations and avoiding false reassurance, as well as spending more time on focused problem-solving activities. ATTENDING TO C ULTURAL D IFFERENCESMany events that frequently stimulate a crisis reaction in the dominant culture, such as a death, a suicide, or a natural disaster, may or may not have a similar effect on members of other cultures (Sandoval, 2002b). Sometimes a reaction to a traumatic event will be culturally appropriate but will seem to western eyes to be a breakdown of ordinary coping. Extreme outward expression of grief by wailing and crying followed by self-mutilation and threats of suicide following the death of a loved one may be normal coping behavior expected of a survivor in a particular culture (Klingman, 1986).A cultural informant will be useful in indicating what normal reactions to various traumatic events are for a particular culture. One of the most important manifestations of culture is language. Many important cultural concepts cannot be satisfactorily translated from one language to another, because the meaning is so bound up in cultural values and worldview. If possible, crisis interveners should speak the same language as their client and be familiar with their cultural perspective.In an emergency, this kind of match of counselor and client may not be possible, so school psychologists need to be prepared to work with interpreters and cultural informants. Attention to nonverbal communication is also important during a time of crisis. A number of behaviors including form of eye contact, physical contact, and proximity can be different between members of different cultures (Hall, 1959). Because these behaviors are subtle, counselors may easily miss them without hel p. Training in cross-cultural work may be delivered through workshops or by consultation with an experienced psychologist.A ? rst step in working with children from different cultures will be to learn the extent to which the client has become acculturated to the dominant culture. One cannot assume that a child is fully a member of either the culture of the family’s origin or of the American mainstream. Working with the child and family will be individualized on the basis of culturally appropriate intervention. P REVENTING PTSD The common goal of responding to children experiencing situational crises is to prevent the formation of PTSD. This syndrome, ? st identi? ed among military combat veterans, also manifests itself in children. Their reaction is similar to that in adults, although their reactions may be somewhat different and the symptoms will vary with age (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). To be diagnosed with PTSD, a person who has been exposed to trauma must ha ve symptoms in three different areas: persistent reexperiencing of the traumatic stressor, persistent avoidance of reminders of the traumatic event, and persistent symptoms of increased arousal.These symptoms must be present for at least one month, and cause clinically signi? cant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Children are more likely than adults to have symptomatology related to aggression, anxiety, depression, and regression (Mazza & Overstreet, 2000). As noted earlier, traumatic stress reactions Psychology in the Schools DOI: 10. 1002/pits Crisis Counseling Overview 251 are to a signi? ant extent dependent on the child’s level of development (Joshi & Lewin, 2004). Especially among younger children, traumatic stress reactions are less connected to the stressor and more likely to take the form of generalized fear and anxiety. It is certainly not true that all children, if untr eated, will develop PTSD. In fact, recovery is the norm (NIMH, 2001). Recent studies regarding the prevalence of PTSD in children and adolescents estimates that about 15% –43% of children have experienced at least one traumatic event in their lifetime.Although estimates vary by extent and type of trauma, a conservative estimate is that 12% –15% of children may develop PTSD six or more months following a disaster (La Greca, Silverman, Vernberg, & Prinstein, 1996; McDermott & Palmer, 1999). In a review of the literature, Saigh, Yasik, Sack, & Koplewicz (1999) report that rates of psychological trauma among children and adolescents (as indicated by the presence of PTSD) vary considerably both within and between types of crisis events (with rates of PTSD ranging from 0% to 95%).Some may even develop longterm characterological patterns of behavior following a disaster, such as fearfulness (Honig, Grace, Lindy, Newman, & Titchener, 1999). These character traits, exhibited la ter in life, may originate as negative coping responses to the trauma. Severity of symptoms is related to the magnitude of exposure to the event itself, and the degree of psychological distress experienced by children in response to trauma is measured by several factors. The closer a child is to the location of the event (physical proximity), or the longer the exposure, the greater likelihood of severe distress.Having a relationship with the victim of trauma also increases the risk (emotional proximity). A third factor is the child’s initial reaction; those who display more severe reactions, such as becoming hysterical or panicking, are at greater risk for needing mental health assistance later on. The child’s subjective understanding of the traumatic event can sometimes be more important than the event itself. That is, the more the child perceives an event as threatening or frightening, the greater the chance of increased psychological distress.Additionally, children who experience the following family factors are at an increased risk: those who do not live with a nuclear family member, have been exposed to family violence, have a family history of mental illness, or have caregivers who are severely distressed themselves (Fletcher, 2003). Children who face a disaster without the support of a nurturing friend or relative appear to suffer more than those who do have that support available to them. Symptoms in children may be more severe if there is parental discord or distress and if there are subsequent stressors, such as lack of housing following a disaster (La Greca et al. 1996). The traumatic death of a family member also increases the risk of stress reactions (Applied Research and Consulting, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, & New York Psychiatric Institute, 2002; Bradach & Jordan, 1995). Finally, children who have preexisting mental health problems or previous exposure to threatening or frightening events are more likely to experience more severe reactions to trauma than are others. Symptoms may also be heightened among ethnic minorities (La Greca et al. , 1996). La Greca and her colleagues (1996) discuss ? e factors related to the development of severe symptomatology: 1) exposure to disaster-related experiences, including perceived life threats; 2) preexisting child characteristics such as poverty and illness; 3) the recovery environment including social support; 4) the child’s coping skills; and 5) intervening stressful life event during recovery. These factors may interact with biological factors that make the child particularly vulnerable, such as genetically based premorbid psychopathology and temperament (Cook-Cottone, 2004).Clearly intervention must supply an appropriate recovery environment that is suited to a child’s characteristics and facilitates coping. Determination of what intervention is appropriate for a given student should be based on assessment of risk for psychologi cal traumatization. Nevertheless, school is an important environment where prevention and healing can take place. Cook-Cottone (2004), drawing from the literature on children with cancer, has outlined a protocol for reintegrating children into school following a traumatic experience that has led to their absence from school.Psychology in the Schools DOI: 10. 1002/pits 252 Sandoval, Scott, and Padilla FACILITATING THE G RIEVING P ROCESS Grieving, and mourning the losses common to most potentially traumatic events, will be among the counseling objectives. Losses may include those of signi? cant others as well as loss of status. However, emotional numbing and avoidance of trauma reminders that accompany trauma can greatly interfere with the process of grieving. Trauma work often takes precedence over grief work; nevertheless, ultimately appropriate mourning must be facilitated (Hawkins, 2002). Worden (2002) has identi? d four tasks of mourning. The ? rst task is to accept the reality o f the loss and neither deny it has occurred nor minimize the impact on the child’s life. It is common for children to fantasize about a reunion or that there has been a mistake about the loss, or that divorced parents will reunite. Before a child can progress to the second task, there must be a reduction in spiritual, magical, or distorted thinking (Hawkins, 2002). Worden’s second task is to experience the pain of grief. There are many pressures, both cultural and familial, to not express or feel sadness at a loss.Children are told not to be a â€Å"crybaby† and to â€Å"act like an adult. † However, if the emotional pain is not experienced, there may be a manifestation in psychosomatic symptoms or maladaptive thinking or behaving (Hawkins, 2002). The third task of coping with a loss is to adjust to a new environment that does not include the lost status or relationship. The child must learn to create a new set of behaviors and relationships to replace th ose lost. The goal is to build a meaningful and authentic new lifestyle and identity.A failure to accomplish this task leaves a child feeling immobilized and helpless, clinging to an idealized past. The ? nal task of mourning is to withdraw emotional energy from the lost status and reinvest it in other relationships and endeavors. By holding on to the past, lost attachments rather than forming new ones, a child may become stuck. Instead, the trauma victim must eventually embrace a new status. Worden (2002) believes that, when the tasks of mourning are accomplished, the individual will be able to think of the loss without powerful pain, although perhaps with a sense of nostalgia and perhaps some sadness.In addition, the child or adolescent will be able to reinvest emotions in new relationships without guilt or remorse (Hawkins, 2002). T REATMENT School-based Counseling Galante and Foa (1986) worked in groups with children in one school throughout the school year following a major Ita lian earthquake. The children were encouraged to explore fears, mistaken understandings, and feelings connected to death and injury from the disaster using discussion, drawing, and role playing. Most participants, except those who experienced a death in the family, showed a reduction in symptoms.Another feature of disasters and terrorist acts is a lowered sense of control over one’s destiny and heightened fear of the unknown. Thus, a focus on returning a sense of empowerment to children will be important. If children can be directed to participate in restorative activities and take some actions to mitigate the results of the disaster, no matter how small, they can begin to rebuild an important sense of ef? cacy. Finally, there may be issues of survivor guilt, if there is widespread loss of life or property. Survivor guilt is a strong feeling of culpability often nduced among individuals who survive a situation that results in the death of valued others. Those individuals spar ed, but witnessing the devastation of others, may have extreme feelings of guilt that will need to be dealt with. Children, particularly, ascribe fantastical causes to the effects they see. Consequently, some may Psychology in the Schools DOI: 10. 1002/pits Crisis Counseling Overview 253 need to explore their magical thinking in counseling or play therapy about why they escaped injury or loss. School community–based support groups can provide one vehicle for feeling connected to others and working through these feelings.Ceballo (2000) describes a short-term supportive intervention group based in the school for children exposed to urban violence. Her groups are designed to 1) validate and normalize children’s emotional reactions to violence, 2) help children restore a sense of control over certain aspects of their environment, 3) develop safety skills for dealing with the environment in the future, 4) understand the process of grief and mourning, and 5) minimize the in? uence of PTSD symptoms on educational tasks and other daily life events. Such structured support groups can promote resiliency and promote constructive coping with problems.Depending on training and supervision, the school psychologist might also engage in therapies validated for the treatment of PTSD. These therapies are reviewed in the section on community-based therapy. Time and other constraints often make outside referral necessary. Bibliotherapy Bibliotherapy may also be useful following a disaster. A particularly useful resource for children is a book entitled I’ll Know What to Do: A Kid’s Guide to Natural Disasters by Mark, Layton, and Chesworth (1997). The authors focus on four concepts they view as fundamental to recovery: information, communication, reassurance, and the reestablishment of routine.They explore children’s feelings that often emerge in the aftermath of a disaster, and offer useful techniques to help young people cope with them. Another technique in which the child is an active participant in the creation of a book about personal experiences is called the resolution scrapbook (Lowenstein, 1995). Here the child is guided through a set of experiences and activities designed to help the child reprocess traumatic experiences and place completed work in a scrapbook. Evidence for the effectiveness of this technique is largely anecdotal to date. Other Adults in CrisisAn important feature of a traumatic event is the fact that the adults in the school as well as the children are affected. The teachers, administrators, and guidance staff would be as traumatized as children by an earthquake, terrorism, or an airplane crashing into the school. They will need assistance in coping with the aftermath of the crisis as much as the children will (Daniels, Bradley, & Hays, 2007). It is likely that outside crisis response assistance will be needed to help an entire community deal with disaster and mayhem associated with violence. Comm unity-based PsychotherapyCognitive behavior therapy. There are many treatments being studied for their effectiveness in the area of PTSD. Currently, much of the research suggests that cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) may be the most promising treatment for PTSD (Jones & Stewart, 2007). CBT is a structured, symptom-focused therapy that includes a wide variety of skill-building techniques. All are based on the premise that thoughts and behaviors can cause negative emotions and patterns of interactions with others. Making maladaptive thoughts and behaviors more functional is the goal of CBT (Jaycox, 2004).CBT uses techniques that integrate elements of cognitive information processing associated with anxiety with behavioral techniques—such as relaxation, imaginal or in vivo exposure, and role playing—that are known to be useful in the reduction of anxiety (Cook-Cottone, 2004). Psychology in the Schools DOI: 10. 1002/pits 254 Sandoval, Scott, and Padilla Another protocol fo r dealing with treating PTSD is eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR). It includes many of the same elements as CBT, with the exception of in vivo exposure, and includes rhythmic eye and other tracking exercises (Greenwald, 1998).It has been successfully used with school-age populations (Chemtob, Nakashima, & Carlson, 2002). Play and art therapy. Play and art therapy are also being studied to determine their effectiveness on PTSD symptoms, especially in young children because of issues in language development (Cole & Piercy, 2007). Because play is a child’s natural method of developing mastery over the environment and because many symptoms of PTSD are seen in children’s play, this is a natural course of treatment (Kaduson, 2006). The use of art therapy has also shown to be effective in group work (Hansen, 2006). Medication.As a measure of last resort, medication may be used to treat severe PTSD. Often the symptoms of anxiety or depression that have resul ted from exposure to a traumatic experience are treated. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) in particular are often prescribed to treat the symptoms of anxiety and depression, including sertraline, paroxetine, and ? uoxetine (Foa, Davidson, & Frances, 1999). In the adult population, antipsychotic, antiepileptic, and other psychotropic medications have been explored and may be effective depending on the symptoms of the individual (Davis, Frazier, Williford, & and Newell, 2006).If medications are prescribed to a student, it is important that there be a liaison between the school and the treating physician or psychiatrist to monitor effectiveness and deleterious side effects. C ONCLUSIONS School psychologists are often the contacts in schools when there is a traumatizing event. School psychologists should be ready to administer psychological ? rst aid that is individualized and developmentally and culturally appropriate. By intervening and facilitating coping processes and the grieving process, it may be possible to prevent or minimize the development of PTSD.School-based protocols have been developed to respond to children in crisis. When students are referred to other psychological, psychiatric, or medical services, it is important to designate a liaison between the school and other professionals to maximize optimal treatment and care. R EFERENCES Allen, S. F. , Dlugokinski, E L. , Cohen, L. A. , & Walker, J. L. (1999). Assessing the impact of a traumatic community event on children and assisting with their healing. Psychiatric Annals, 29, 93 – 98. American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed. Text Rev. ). Washington, DC: Author. Applied Research and Consulting, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, & New York Psychiatric Institute. (2002, May 6). Effects of the World Trade Center attack on NYC public school students: Initial report to the New York City Board of Educat ion. New York: New York City Board of Education. Barenbaum, J. , Ruchkin, V. , & Schwab-Stone, M. (2004). The psychosocial aspects of children exposed to war: Practice and policy initiatives. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 41 – 62. Bradach, K. M. , & Jordan, J. R. (1995).Long-term effects of a family history of traumatic death on adolescent individuation. Death Studies, 19, 315 – 336. Brock, S. E. , Sandoval, J. , & Lewis, S. (2001). Preparing for crises in the schools: A manual for building school crisis response teams (2nd ed. ). New York: John Wiley. Byrne, B. M. (1996). Measuring self-concept across the lifespan: Issues and instrumentation. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Caffo, E. , & Belaise, C. (2003). Psychological aspects of traumatic injury in children and adolescents. Child & Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 12, 493 – 535.Caplan, G. (1964). Principles of preventative psychiatry. New York: Basic Book s. Caplan, G. (1970). Theory and practice of mental health consultation. New York: Basic Books. Ceballo, R. (2000). The neighborhood club: A supportive intervention group for children exposed to urban violence. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70, 401 – 407. Psychology in the Schools DOI: 10. 1002/pits Crisis Counseling Overview 255 Chemtob, C. M. , Nakashima, J. , & Carlson, J. G. (2002). Brief treatment for elementary school children with disaster-related posttraumatic stress disorder: A ? eld study.Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58, 99 – 112. Cole, E. , & Piercy, F. (2007). The use of dolls to assist young children with PTSD symptoms. Journal of Family Psychotherapy, 18, 83 – 89. Cook-Cottone, C. (2004). Childhood posttraumatic stress disorder: Diagnosis, treatment, and school reintegration. School Psychology Review, 33(2), 127 – 139. Daniels, J. A. , Bradley, M. C. , & Hays, M. (2007). The impact of school violence on school personnel: Implicatio ns for psychologists. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 38, 652 – 659. Davis, L. L. , Frazier, E. C. , Williford, R. B. & Newell, J. M. (2006). Long-term pharmacology for post-traumatic stress disorder. CNS Drugs, 20(6), 465 – 476. Fletcher, K. E. (2003). Childhood posttraumatic stress disorder. In E. J. Mash & R. A. Barkley (Eds. ) Childhood psychopathology (pp. 330 – 371). New York: Guilford. Foa, E. B. , Davidson, J. R. T. , & Frances, A. (1999). The expert consensus guidelines series: Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 60, 4 – 76. Galante, R. , & Foa, D. (1986). An epidemiological study of psychic trauma and treatment effectiveness for children after a natural disaster.Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 25, 357 – 363. Greenwald, R. (1998). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR): New hope for children suffering from trauma and loss. Clinical Child Psychology a nd Psychiatry, 3, 279 – 287. Hall, E. T. (1959). The Silent Language. Greenwich, CT: Fawcett. Hansen, S. (2006). An expressive arts therapy model with groups for post-traumatic stress syndrome. In L. Carey (Ed. ). Expressive and creative arts methods for trauma survivors (pp. 73 – 91). London: Jessica Kingsley. Harter, S. (1999). The Construction of the self: A developmental perspective.New York: The Guilford Press. Hawkins, P. G. (2002). Helping children cope with death. In Sandoval, J. (Ed. ) Handbook of crisis counseling, intervention and prevention in the schools (2nd ed. ). (pp. 161 – 182). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Honig, R. G. , Grace, M. C. , Lindy, J. D. , Newman, C. J. , & Titchener, J. L. (1999). Assessing the long-term effects of disasters occurring during childhood and adolescence: Questions of perspective and methodology. In M. Sugar (Ed. ), Trauma and adolescence (pp. 203 – 224). Madison, CT: International Universities Press. Klingman, A. (1986).School community in disaster: Planning for intervention. Journal of Community Psychology, 16, 205 – 216. Jaycox, L. (2004). Cognitive behavioral intervention for trauma in schools. Longmont, CO: Sopris West. Jones, A. B. , & Stewart, J. L. (2007). Group cognitive-behavior therapy to address post-traumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents. In R. W. Christner, J. L. Stewart, & A. Freeman (Eds. ), Handbook of cognitive-behavior group therapy with children and adolescents: Speci? c settings and presenting problems (pp. 223 – 240). New York: Routledge/Taylor & Francis. Joshi, P. T. , & Lewin, S. M. 2004). Disaster, terrorism and children. Psychiatric Annals, 34, 710 – 716. Kaduson, H. G. (2006). Release play therapy for children with posttraumatic stress syndrome. In H. G. Kaduson, & C. E. Shaefer (Eds. ), Short-term therapy for children (pp. 3 – 21). New York: The Guilford Press. La Greca, A. M. , Silverman, W. K. , Vernberg, E . M. , & Prinstein, M. J. (1996). Symptoms of posttraumatic stress in children after Hurricane Andrew: A prospective study. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 64, 712 – 723. Lazarus, R. S. , & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer.Lee, C. C. , & Armstrong, K. L. (1995). Indigenous models of mental health intervention. In J. G. Ponterotto, J. M. Casas, L. A. Suzuki, & C. M. Alexander (Eds. ). Handbook of Multicultural Counseling (pp. 411 – 456). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Litz, B. T. , Gray, M. J. , Bryant, R. A. , & Adler, A. (2002). Early intervention for trauma: Current status and future directions. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 9, 112 – 134. Lowenstein, L. B. (1995). The resolution scrapbook as an aid in the treatment of traumatized children. Child Welfare Journal, 74, 889 – 904. Marans, S. , & Adelman, A. (1997).Experiencing violence in a developmental context. In J. D. Osofsky (Ed. ), Children in a violent society. New York: The Guilford Press. Mark, B. S. , Layton, A. , & Chesworth, M. (1997). I’ll know what to do: A kid’s guide to natural disasters. Washington, DC: Magination Press. Mash, H. W. , & Shavelson, R. (1985). Self-concept: Its multifaceted hierarchical structure. Educational Psychologist, 2, 107 – 123. Marsh, H. W. , Byrne, B. M. , & Shavelson, R. J. (1988). A multifaceted academic self-concept: Its hierarchical structure and its relation to academic achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 366 – 380.Mazza, J. J. , & Overstreet, S. (2000). Children and adolescents exposed to community violence: A mental health perspective for school psychologists. School Psychology Review, 29, 86 – 101. Psychology in the Schools DOI: 10. 1002/pits 256 Sandoval, Scott, and Padilla McDermott, B. M. C. , & Palmer, L. J. (1999). Post-disaster service provision following proactive identi? cation of children with emotional distress and depr ession. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 33, 855 – 863. Morgan, K. E. , & White, P. R. (2003). The functions of art-making in CISD with children and youth.International Journal of Emergency Mental Health, 5, 61 – 76. National Child Traumatic Stress Network and National Center for Post Traumatic Stress Disorder. (2006). Psychological ? rst aid: Field operation guide (2nd ed. ). Author. Available at: http://www. nctsnet. org/nctsn assets/pdfs/pfa/2/ PsyFirstAid. pdf National Institute of Mental Health. (2001). Mental health and mass violence: Evidence-based early psychological intervention for victims/survivors of mass violence. A workshop to reach consensus on best practices. Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Of? ce. Ozer, E. J. Best, S. R. , Lipsey, T. L. , & Weiss, D. S. (2003). Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 52 – 73. Parker, C. L. , Everly, G. S. , Barnett , D. J. , & Links, J. M. (2006). Establishing evidence-informed core intervention competencies in psychological ? rst aid for public health personnel. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health, 8, 83 – 92. Saigh, P. A. , Yasik, A. E. , Sack, W. H. , & Koplewicz, H. S. (1999). Child-adolescent posttraumatic stress disorder: Prevalence, risk factors, and comorbidity.In P. A. Saigh, & J. D. Bremner (Eds. ), Posttraumatic stress disorder: A comprehensive text (pp. 18 – 43). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Sandoval, J. (2002a). General principles of crisis counseling and prevention. In J. Sandoval (Ed. ), Handbook of crisis counseling, intervention and prevention in the schools (2nd ed. , pp. 3 – 24). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Sandoval, J. (2002b). Cultural issues in crisis work. In J. Sandoval (Ed. ), Handbook of crisis counseling, intervention and prevention in the schools (2nd ed. , pp. 39 – 58). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Shavelso n, R. J. , Hubner, J. J. , & Stanton, G. C. (1976). Self-concept: Validation of construct interpretations. Review of Educational Research, 46, 407 – 441. Worden, J. W. (2002). Grief counseling and grief therapy: A handbook for the mental health professional (3rd ed. ). New York: Springer. Young, B. H. , Ford, J. D. , Ruzek, J. I. , Friedman, M. L. , & Gusman, F. D. (1999). Disaster mental health services: A guidebook for clinicians and administrators. [Online]. Available at: http://ncptsd. va. gov/ncmain/ncdocs/manuals/ nc manual dmhm. html Psychology in the Schools DOI: 10. 1002/pits

Sunday, November 10, 2019

Assessment Task: Carbon Chemistry and Functional Groups

Assessment Task:Â  Carbon Chemistry & Functional Groups 1. Why does the carbon atom make so many covalent compounds? Carbon atoms have 4 single valence electrons, which mean they can bond to 4 other atoms. It bonds in a tetrahedral shape, or make straight, bent or ring shaped molecules when many are bonded together. The complexity allows it to bond to many other atoms. (1) 2. How is the structure of ethanol (key ingredient in vodka) different than the structure of acetic acid (vinegar) in terms of functional groups? Firstly, the structure of ethanol contains 6 hydrogen atoms, 2 carbon atoms and an oxygen atom. What is different from ethanol is that acetic acid has 2 oxygen atoms bonded to it rather than one and there are 5 hydrogen atoms on acetic acid while there are 6 hydrogen atoms on the ethanol. On the ethanol, the oxygen and a hydrogen atom bond together to form a hydroxyl group at the end of the chain while there is a carboxyl group attatched to the main chain of the acetic acid. The aldahyde functional group contains a double bond oxygen atom and a hydroxy group bonded to the end carbon. (1) 3. Draw diagrams of ethanol and acetic acid – clearly showing the shared pairs of electrons (covalent bonds). 4. Draw a structural diagram of glycine. (2) 5. Name the class of compounds that glycine belongs to and what do all of the compounds in this class have in common? Glycine is in the class of macromolecules. Ths class includes many repeated functional groups. 1) 6. Draw an organic compound that has two different functional groups. Lable these groups. Hydroxyl group on one end carboxyl group on the other. References 1. Allinotte, T. (2008). Chemical Basis of Life. Retrieved from